The British Military Presence in America, 1660-1720
The presence of British regular army forces in the American colonies in
the late 17th century and early 18th century was sporadic at best. This
period in which Britain was becoming an empire at war intermittently with
other European Powers, was a time when defending colonial possessions was
becoming, but was not yet a major priority. This is a small but evolving
attempt to learn something about and portray those sent to America to
defend it from natives, pirates and the other major competing adversaries
in America, those being, initially, the Netherlands, and later Spain and
France. The wars fought in America during this time that involved regulars
were King William’s War (1690-98), Queen Anne’s War (1702-13), the War of
the Quadruple Alliance (1718-20).
In the 17th century and later, soldiers were seen as a dangerous
burden to those civilian communities they lived in or near. The need for
protection from hostile natives, pirates, the Spanish and or France in the
Caribbean seemed to lead to some appreciation for soldiers and former
soldiers as settlers. During the post-1697 disbandment, Antigua offered a
bounty and land for those soldiers who stayed on there. In 1688, Antigua
also offered a pension to wounded soldiers and their children or widows.
By all indications, this demonstrates a unique view of soldiers. Further
exploration of the literature is called for to see if this unique attitude
was common to the North American and other Caribbean colonies.
Regular Regiments. Regular regiments, in whole or in part, were
involved in both garrison and expeditionary missions in North America and
the Caribbean during this period. How the regiments were equipped was a
function of how much the regimental commander was willing to spend on his
soldiers and where the British army was generally in its transition away
from pike to bayonet, from matchlock to fire lock, bandoleer of boxes to
cartridge boxes and the other transitions occurring in the army. Matchlock
muskets and bandoleers (or “collars”) of charges might have been seen
throughout the period with vastly decreasing frequency after 1700. Marine
units would not have had matchlocks in their inventory. Firelocks would
have been seen in ever increasing numbers throughout the period. Sword
belts and plug bayonets would have been prevalent from the 1680’s onward.
I have addressed the regimental colors (coat/facing) of the different
regular regiments that served in America during the specified time
wherever possible as well as if they were raised in Ireland. Also, when
possible, I have provided the numbered regiment designation of those
regiments that continued to 1757 and the duration of service of those
regiments that were “broken.”
Independent Companies. The Independent Companies were composed of
officers and soldiers sent from Britain and not raised locally. Unlike the
other units of the army that each had distinctive uniform colors, regiment
dependent, they would have worn Royal Livery colors, that is to say red
coats faced blue. Commanders were responsible for clothing, arming and
equipping their soldiers. Each company would have been equipped and
clothed as any other company for the time it was raised. This being a time
of great transition in weapons and equipment and there being no uniform
pattern for clothing and equipment, there is likely to have been a good
deal of variation between the companies at different locations not to
mention the differences between the equipment of “old timers” and new
replacements. When the initial issue was worn out, it was expected that
the colony, officers or soldiers would replace it. The likelihood that
such replacement occurred with any degree of regularity is low, given
multi-year long delays in soldier and officer pay and colonies already
feeling over taxed by the British government. Equipment and style of
uniform was a function of when a company deployed from England and when or
if it was re-supplied and re-equipped.
An Independent Company organization had 50-100 soldiers with one
Captain, one to two Lieutenants, three sergeants, three corporals and 2
drummers. There is no mention in the literature of pike being used, only
muskets. Once a soldier came over with an Independent Company they rarely
went back to Britain. They either died, as large numbers did, due more to
conditions than combat, or retired and settled where they had been sent,
subject to recall at any time. Officers did find their way back to Britain
on occasion, but staying in the colonies allowed advancement for those
without the requisite family connections, due to death and or retirement
of superiors. A lack of family connections would have been likely to land
officers in the Independent Companies to begin with. Sergeants from
regular regiments, as opposed to “gentlemen,” were even known to have been
offered and accepted commissions in the Independent Companies during the
reign of Queen Anne. These were not prestigious postings for ambitious
officers.
Why volunteer for service in an Independent Company half a world
away? Some soldiers didn’t, but were forced to go as punishment for
desertion and other crimes. Others were from “broken” disbanded regiments
and wished to remain soldiers. Some were doubtless told they would receive
their past due pay if they continued to serve.
The army underwent a major draw down in 1697 with the signing of the
Treaty of Ryswick leading to a 60% reduction of an army of 87,500 men. A
total of 1500 officers were put on half pay. The Independent Companies
were an opportunity to continue to serve, and many chose to.
The mission of the Independent Companies was colonial defense as
well as to augment and support offensive operations. The Independent
Companies manned garrisons and forts, served as leadership cadre as well
as trainers for militia forces, and served as marines for Royal Navy and
Privateer vessels that needed them. Soldiering in the Independent
Companies no doubt became a part time job, situation and location
dependent, allowing for casual labor and taking up outside trades. Unlike
soldiers in mobile regiments, these soldiers became permanent members of
the community where they were stationed.
Militia
The militia was comprised of all able bodied male civilians usually between the ages of 18 and 60, led by local prominent community leaders. They either brought their own arms or were armed by their commanders. There is no evidence I have found of militia uniforms with the exception of an effort on the part of the Port Royal Council in the 1680’s to provide black hats and red coats to the militia and an eyewitness account of the Port Royal militia wearing red coats with blue facings in 1688 . Militia rotated through forts and were involved in patrolling frontiers areas. In the case of islands and coastal regions militia patrolled areas subject to amphibious assault and piracy. Militia were also involved in expeditionary operations and subject to serve as marines on Royal Navy vessels requiring a complement of marines.
The Role of Women
Women had a critical role in the armies of the late 17th and early 18th centuries, to the point that armies would feed 15 women per company to insure the execution of the essential logistical roles of cooking, providing medical support as well as repairing and washing clothes. The Independent Companies and militia were no different in this regard. In the literature there are two interesting citations concerning the presence of women in the Army, the first being a Lieutenant of an unidentified Independent Company with smallpox being put ashore with his wife so she could nurse him to health. The other is the drowning of 35 women in the sinking of a troop ship in the St Lawrence Seaway during the abortive attempt on Quebec in 1711. Wherever British soldiers went, their women went too.
Chronology of Military Operations in North America and identifiable British units involved, 1664-1720
25 Aug 1664 Dutch surrender New Amsterdam and Fort Amsterdam
(renamed as New York and Fort James) to three companies of the Duke of
York’s Regiment (approximately 100 men in three companies) (1664-1690)
1665-67 Second Dutch War
1667 Dutch raid on the James River
1670 Treaty of America between Britain and Spain
1672-74 Third Dutch War
1673 Admiral Evertson takes New York for Holland
1674 New York returned to Britain
1675-76 King Phillips War
Appleton’s Massachusetts Militia
Bradford’s Plymouth Militia
Treat’s Connecticut Militia
1675-76 Virginia war with the Susquehannocks.
1676 Bacon’s rebellion in Virginia
1676 Pate’s rebellion in Maryland
1676 Albermarle’s war with the Meherins.
1677 Culpepper’s rebellion in Carolina
1682 Pirate raid on plantations on the York River in Virginia. Ship
pursued to Rhode Island and crew captured
1683 Talbot establishes Maryland fort near New Castle with Maryland
militia garrison
1686 Spanish destroy Scottish settlement of Stuart’s Town in
Carolina
1687 Guard Ship Dumbarton captures pirate vessels vicinity Accomack
County in the Chesapeake Bay
1688 Raid on Maine Indians
1689-97 King William’s War
1689 Coode’s Rebellion in Maryland
1690 Phip’s capture of Port Royal and Acadia
Johnson’s Massachusetts Militia
1690 French raid Falmouth Maine
1690 Phips raid on Quebec
1696 Raid on Beaubassin
Church’s Massachusetts Militia
1696 French destroy Fort at Pemaquid Miane
1697 Seizure of St. Johns by Commodore Norris
Gibson’s Foot (28th) (red/yellow)
1697 Treaty of Ryswick- Acadia returned to France
1702-13 Queen Anne’s War/War of Spanish Succession
1700 Governor Nicholson and Captain Passenger of the HMS Shoreham
capture Lewis Guillar and the Le Paix on the James River in Virginia
1701 Pennsylvania established armed watch on Delaware Bay to look
for pirate activity
1702 Raid on St Augustine
Moore’s South Carolina Militia
Daniel’s South Carolina Militia
1704 Apalachee Raid
Moore’s South Carolina Militia
1704 Attack on Port Royal
1 Massachusetts Militia regiment
1704 French raid on Deerfield, Massachusetts
1704 Raid on Mines
Church’s Massachusetts Militia
1706 Spanish/French attack on Charleston
Northward Militia Regiment
Southward Militia Regiment
1707 Raid on Port Royal
Wainright’s Massachusetts Militia
Hilton’s Massachusetts Militia
1 New Hampshire Militia Regiment
1708 Recapture of St John’s by French
1710 Capture of Port Royal and Acadia
Saunderson’s 1st Marines (30th) (Irish) (red/yellow)
Hobby’s Massachusetts Militia regiment
Tailer’s Massachusetts Militia regiment
Whiting’s Connecticut Militia regiment
Walton’s Rhode Island/New Hampshire Militia regiment
1711-12 Attempt on Quebec under Commodore Walker
Queen’s Royal Sea Service Foot (4th) (red/green)
Stanhope’s Sea Service Foot (11th) (red/yellow)
Livesays’ Sea Service Foot (12th) (red/white)
Handasyde’s Sea Service Foot (22nd) (red/buff)
Wetham’s Sea Service Foot (27th) (Irish) (red/buff)
Saunderson’s 1st Marines (30th) (red/yellow)
Donegal’s Marines (35th) (Irish) (red/orange)
Charlemont’s Sea Service Foot (36th) (Irish) (red/green)
Meredeth’s Sea Service Foot (37th) (Irish) (red/yellow)
One company each from:
Villier’s 2nd Marines (31st) (Irish) (red/yellow)
Borr’s 3rd Marines (32nd) (red/white)
Mordaunts’ Marines
Holt’s Marines
Shannon’s Marines
Vetch’s Massachusetts Militia
Walton’s Massachusetts Militia
1 Company, New Hampshire Militia
1711-15 Tuscarora War
Barnwell’s South Carolina Militia
Moore’s South Carolina Militia
1715-18 Yamassee War
Craven’s South Carolina Militia
1718-20 British War with Spain
1718 Cpt Maynard kills Blackbeard and captures crew.
1718 Col Rhett captures Stede Bonnet and crew.
South Carolina Militia
North American Garrisons, 1664-1720
New York
1664 Colonel Nicoll’s Company occupies Fort James
Colonel Cartwright’s Company occupies Ft Orange/Albany
Colonel Carr’s Company occupies Delaware River settlements
1667 Carr’s Company Disbanded
1672 Krieger’s Company raised
1673 Dutch retake New York and English garrison surrenders
1674 Edmond Andros arrives at New York with one Independent Company
of 100 soldiers to be divided between Albany and Fort James/ New York City
1676 Ft Charles at Pemaquid built and garrisoned with 50 men
1686 Two additional Independent Companies arrive at New York. Four
companies established with two sent to Boston
1689 All companies disbanded
1690 Two Independent Companies (3 officers and 68 soldiers each)
with one in New York and one at Albany
1694-95 Four Independent Companies (3 officers and 68 soldiers
each)
1699 Four Independent Companies (3 officers and 50 soldiers each)
1701-14 Four Independent Companies (3 officers and 100 soldiers
each) with 2 Companies in New York City and 2 in Albany
Virginia
1676 Herbert Jeffrey’s Regiment (approximately 1000 officers and
soldiers with 200 soldiers 6 sergeants and 6 corporals per company)
arrives in Jamestown Virginia.
Lt Col. Jeffrey’s Company, 1st Foot Guards (red/blue)
Cpt. Pict’s Company, 1st Foot Guards
Cpt. Mutlowe’s Company, Coldstream Guards (red/green)
Cpt. Middleton’s Company, Duke of York’s Regiment (yellow/red)
(1664-1690)
Cpt. Meole’s Company, Holland Regiment (3rd) (red/buff)
1676 – Elements of regiment garrison south bank of the James where
rebels still active vicinity Albermarle
– Elements of regiment garrison New Kent County
– One company sent to Northern Neck to support militia and protect
plantations
– Two companies sent to the Falls of the James
– One company sent to Kecoughtan
1677 Herbert Jeffrey dies
1677 Independent Company established
1678 Four companies return to England
1679
One Company sent from England
1682 Both Companies disbanded
Massachusetts
1686 Two Independent Companies in Boston
1689 Two Independent Companies returned to England
South Carolina
1670
2 Militia Companies
1685
Northward Militia Regiment
Southward Militia Regiment
Huguenot Company
Port Royal/Annapolis Nova Scotia
1710-17 Four Independent Companies
1717-20 Phillip’s Foot (40th) (red/buff)
Newfoundland
1689-1712
One Independent Company
1694-97
Gibson’s Foot (28th) (red/yellow)
Chronology of Military Operations in the Caribbean and identifiable British units involved, 1660-1720
1660
Captain Myngs’ raid on Santiago
Windsor’s Militia
1663
Captain Myngs’ raid on Campeche
Windsor’s Militia
1665-1667
Second Dutch War
1665
Colonel Morgan’s raid on Dutch colonies of St Eustatius and Saba
Jamaica Privateers
1665
Captain Morgan’s raid on Granada
Jamaica Privateers
1665
Colonel Watt’s raid on St. Martin’s
Watt’s Militia Regiment
1665
Captain Morris’ raid on Guiana
Morris’s Militia Company
1666
English Colony established on New Providence – James Modyford commissioned
as Governor of the Bahamas
1666
Captains Searle’s and Stedman’s raid on Tobago
1666
French capture English side of St Kitts, Montserrat and Antigua
1666
Capture of St Lucia
Willoughby’s Militia Regiment
1666
Captain Harman’s raid on Cayenne
Willoughby’s Militia Regiment
1667
British raid on Tobago
Bridge’s Foot
1667
Captain Harman’s raid on Surinam
Willoughby’s Militia Regiment
1667
French return English side of St Kitts, Montserrat and Antigua to Britain
1668
Captain Morgan’s raid on Puerto Principe
Jamaica Privateers
1668
Captain Morgan’s raid on Portobello
Jamaica Privateers
1669
Captain Morgan’s raid on Maracaibo
Jamaica Privateers
1670
Spanish raids on Jamaica
1670-71
Captain Morgan’s raid on Panama
Jamaica Privateers
1670
Spanish sack New Providence
1670
Captain Searle’s raid on St Augustine
1670
Treaty of America between Britain and Spain
1672 - 1674
Third Dutch War
1672
Major Beeston with the HMS Assistance and HMS Lilly capture the Charity at
sea and Mary while careened.
1673
Col Tobias Bridge captures Tobago Bridge’s Foot
1680
Sharpe’s raid on Panama
1680
Morgan takes Everson’s ship in Cow Bay. Captured crew turned over to
Spanish at Cartagena.
Morgan’s Company
1684
Captain Carlyle with the HMS Francis burns the Trompeuse and another ship
at St Thomas
1683
New Danish Governor installed on St Thomas with British help in response
to support for pirate activity by prior governor
1683
Spanish raid British colony on New Providence
1684
Captain Mitchell and the HMS Ruby captured the Golden Fleece
1687
Captain Sir Robert Holmes Expedition
1684
Spanish raid on Nassau- English settlers evacuate the Bahamas
1687
Colonists from Jamaica settle on New Providence and build a fort
1689-1697
King William’s War
1689
French capture St. Kitt’s and St. Eustatia
1689
French raids on Jamaica
1689
Thornhill with 2 sloops captures French privateer
Hamilton’s Company, Thornhill’s Militia.
1689
Thornhill Raid on St Bartholomew
Thornhill’s Militia
1689
French capture Antiguilla and retaken by Codrington
Lloyd’s/Holt’s Foot (1689-98) (blue)
1690
British retake St Kitt’s and St. Eustatia
Lloyd’s/Holt’s Foot
Independent Company
Thornhill’s Militia
Blackstone’s Militia
Pym’s Militia
Earl’s Militia
William’s Militia
1690-92
Commodore Wright’s Expedition/1690 Raid on St. Bartholomew’s and St.
Martin’s Islands
Lloyd’s/Holt’s Foot
Thornhill’s Militia
Pym’s Militia
Earl’s Militia
Hewetson’s Militia
1691
Codrington’s raid on Hispanola
Lloyd’s/Holt’s Foot
1691
Captain O‘Brien’s raid on Hispaniola
1693
Commodore Wheeler’s raid on Martinique
Foulke’s Foot (38th) (red/yellow)
Lloyd’s/Holt’s Foot
Collingwood’s (32nd) (red/white)
Salter’s Militia
Boteler’s Militia
1694
French Raid on Jamaica
Montjoy’s Independent Company
1695
Commodore Wilmot’s raid on Hispaniola
Lillingston’s Foot (38th)
Lloyd’s/Holt’s Foot
Collingwood’s (32nd)
1697
Fort Nassau built outside Nassau
1702-13
Queen Anne’s War/War of Spanish Succession
1702
British capture of French sector of St. Kitts
1702
Admiral Benbow’s raid on Guadalupe
Wetham’s Sea Service Foot (27th) (Irish) (red/buff)
1702-04
Commodore Walker’s Expedition/ Raid on Guadalupe
Erle’s Sea Service Foot. (19th) (red/yellow)
Viscount Boyne’s Sea Service Foot. (20th) (Irish) (red/white)
Donegal’s Marines (35th) (Irish) (red/orange)
Charlemont’s Sea Service Foot. (36th) (Irish) (red/green)
One company each from:
Saunderson’s 1st Marines (30th) (Irish) (red/yellow)
Villier’s 2nd Marines (31st) (Irish) (red/yellow)
Fox’s 3rd Marines (32nd)
Mordaunts’ Marines (1702-04)
Holt’s Marines (1702-13)
Shannon’s Marines (Irish) (1702-13)
Wetham’s Sea Service Foot (27th)
Byam’s Militia
Two Independent Companies of St Kitts
1703
French/Spanish raid on Nassau
1706
Spanish raid on Nassau- most English settlers evacuate the Bahamas
1706
French raid on Nevis
Burt’s Miltia
1706
French raid on St. Kitt’s
Independent Company
Hamilton’s Militia
1710
French raid on Monserrat
1717
Cpt. Hume of the Scarborough sinks Martel’s ship at St Croix
Jones/Alexander’s Sea Service Foot (38th)
1717
13 British frigates sail to Caribbean to eliminate piracy
1717
Teach’s raid on St Kitts
1717
British Crown issues proclamation for suppression of piracy and surrender
by 1718
1718-20
British War with Spain
1718-19
British settlement on Crab Island. Removed by Spain
1718
Cpt. Woods Rogers arrives at New Providence and garrisons island
1720
Cpt. Barnet captures Jack Rackham, Mary Reed, Ann Bonny and crew
1720
Spanish raid on Nassau
Independent Company
3 Nassau Militia Companies
Caribbean Regular Army Garrisons, 1660-1720
Bermuda
1702-20 One Independent Company
Cpt. Lancelot Sandys, Lt.
Robert Henley, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals one drummer and 50 sentinels
detached from Handasyde’s Sea Service Foot (22nd) in 1702. Barracks
located in St George
Barbados
1667-73
Bridge’s Foot, Six Companies
1671-97
Two Independent Companies
1694-97
Russell’s Foot (The Barbados Regiment)
1698-99
One Independent Company
Bahamas (Abaco, Eleuthera, Andros, New Providence)
1718-20
One Independent Company
Baeuchamp’s Company
Jamaica
1678-82 Two Independent Companies
Carlisle’s Company
Morgan’s Company
1694-99 One Independent Company
Montjoy’s Company
1694-1697 Lillingston’s Foot (38th) (red/yellow)
1703-05 Livesay’s Sea Service Foot (12th) (red/white)
1703-13 Handasyde’s Sea Service Foot (22nd) (red/buff)
1714-20 Two Independent Companies
Leeward Island Colony (St. Kitt’s, Antigua, Barbuda, Montserrat, Nevis, Anguilla, Dominica)
1667-71 Bridge’s Foot, Four Companies with two on Barbados and two
on St. Kitt’s
1671-90 St. Kitt’s two Independent Companies
1689 St Kitts two Independent Companies move to Nevis
1690-1706 St. Kitts one Independent Company
1690-98 Lloyd’s/Holt’s Foot on St. Kitt’s
1692-99 Collingwood’s/Fox’s Foot (32nd ) on Antigua
1699-1714 Wetham’s Sea Service Foot (27th) on St Kitt’s, Antigua
and Nevis
1702-03 St Kitts two Independent Companies
1710-1720
Jones’/Alexander’s Sea Service Foot (38th) on Antigua
Locally raised Caribbean forces:
1660-63 Jamaica
Windsor’s Militia Regiments (4)
Port Royal Regiment
1665 Jamaica
Edward Morgan’s Militia Regiment
1665 St Kitts
Watt’s Militia Regiment
1665 Barbados
Cpt Morris Militia Company
1666-67 Nevis and Antigua
Willoughby’s Militia Regiment
1667-68 Jamaica
Morgan’s Port Royal Regiment
1672-73 Barbados
Rupert’s Dragoons
1680 Jamaica
Morgan’s Port Royal Regiment
Freeman’s Regiment
Cope’s Regiment
Whitfield’s Regiment
Watson’s Regiment
Bynbloss’s Regiment
Fulller’s Regiment
Ballard’s Horse
1689 Barbados/Antigua/Nevis
Thornhill’s Militia Regiment
1689 Nevis
Pym’s Militia Regiment
1689 Nevis
Earl’s Militia Regiment
1692 Barbados
Salter’s Militia Regiment
1692 Barbados
Boteler’s Militia Regiment
1690 Antigua
William’s Militia Regiment
1690 Antigua
Hewetson’s Militia Regiment
1690 Montserrat
Blackstone’s Militia Regiment
1694 Jamaica
Clayborne’s Militia Regiment
1702 Antigua
Byam’s Militia Regiment
1706 St Kitt’s
Hamilton’s Militia Regiment
1706 Nevis
Burt’s Militia Regiment
Antigua Privateers 1702-13
Bermuda Privateers 1682-84
Barbados Privateers 1702-13
Jamaica Privateers
1660-72
1675-79
1702-1713
1718Bahamas
3 Nassau Militia Companies
Sources:
- Andrews, Charles, “Narratives of the Insurrections, 1675-1690,” Scribner, NY, 1915
- Beer, George L., “The Old Colonial System, 1660-1754,” MacMillan, NY, 1912
- Breverton, Terry, “Admiral Sir Henry Morgan,” Pelican, Louisiana, 2005
- Bridenbaugh, Carl and Roberta, “No Peace Beyond the Line, The English in the Caribbean, 1624-1690,” Oxford University Press, New York, 1972
- Brown, Anthony, ed., “The Laws of the Island of Antigua,” vol. I, Samuel Bagster, London, 1805
- Craton, Michael, “A History of the Bahamas,” Collins, London, 1962
- Ede-Borrett, “The Army of James II, Uniforms and Organization” Partizan Press, Essex, 1997
- Earle, Peter, “The Pirate Wars,” Meuthen, London, 2003
- Foote, William A., “The American Independent Companies of the British Army, 1664-1764”, PhD Thesis, UCLA, 1966
- Gardner, W.J., “A History of Jamaica,” Elliot Stock, London, 1878
- Guttridge, G.H., “The Colonial Policy of William III in America and the West Indies,” Cambridge Univ. Press, London, 1922
- Hamilton, F.W., “The Origins and History of the First or Grenadier Guards,” John Murray, London, 1874
- Haring, C.H., “The Buccaneers in the West Indies in the XVII Century,” E.P. Dutton, New York, 19190
- Harlow, Vincent, “Christopher Codrington, 1668-1710,” Oxford, 1928
- Harris, Simon, “Sir Cloudesley Shovell, Stuart Admiral,” Simon Harris, Kent, 2001
- Irvine, Dallas, “The First British Regulars in North America,” Military Affairs, Vol. 9, No.4. (Winter 1945), pp. 337-354
- Knight, H.R., “Historical records of the Buffs East Kent Regiment formerly designated the Holland Regiment and Prince George of Denmark’s Regiment,” Gale and Polden, London
- Morgan, Thomas, “The British West Indies during King William’s War (1689-97),” The Journal of Modern History, Vol.2, No.3. (Sep 1930), pp. 378-409
- Pawson, Michael and Buisseret, “Port Royal Jamaica,” University of the West Indies Press, Kingston, 2000
- Peckham, Howard, ‘The Colonial Wars, 1689-1762,” University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1964
- Sapherson, C.A., The British Army of William III”, Partizan Press, Essex, 1987
- Schomburgk, Robert, “The History of Barbados,” Longman, Brown and Green, London, 1848
- Scouller, R.E., “The Armies of Queen Anne”, Oxford Univ Press, London, 1966
- Smith, B. “A History of the Lancashire Fusiliers”, Sackville Press, Dublin, 1903
- Smith, William, “The History of the Province of New York from first discovery to the year 1732,” Thomas Wilcox, London, 1757
- Southey, Thomas, “Chronological History of the West Indies,” Longman, London, 1827
- Swiney, G.C., “Historical Records of the 32nd Cornwall Light Infantry”, Simpkins and Co., London, 1893
- Webb, Stephen S., “Lord Churchill’s Coup,” Alfred Knopf, New York, 1995
- Webb, Stephen S., “1676, The End of American Independence,” Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1995
- anon., “The Modern Part of an Universal History”, Vol. 41, T. Osborne, London, 1764
- anon., “ Antigua and the Antiguans”, Vol. I, Saunders and Otley, London, 1844